6Preliminary Riarks
1504. Experiments with paper Money in the United States
7Book I Production
1515. Examination of the gain arising from the increase and issue of paper Currency
8Chapter I Of The Requisites Of Production
1526. Résumé of the subject of money
91. The Requisites of Production are Two: Labor, and Appropriate Natural Objects
153Chapter XI Of Excess Of Supply
102. The Second Requisite of Production, Labor
1541. The theory of a general Over-Supply of Commodities stated
113. Of Capital as a Requisite of Production
1552. The supply of commodities in general can not exceed the power of Purchase
12Chapter II Of Unproductive Labor
1563. There can never be a lack of Demand arising from lack of Desire to Consume
131. Definition of Productive and Unproductive Labor
1574. Origin and Explanation of the notion of general Over-Supply
142. Productive and Unproductive Consumption
158Chapter XII Of Some Peculiar Cases Of Value
153. Distinction Between Labor for the Supply of Productive Consumption and Labor for the Supply of Unproductive Consumption
1591. Values of commodities which have a joint cost of production
16Chapter III Of Capital
1602. Values of the different kinds of agricultural produce
171. Capital is Wealth Appropriated to Reproductive Employment
161Chapter XIII Of International Trade
182. More Capital Devoted to Production than Actually Employed in it
1621. Cost of Production not a regulator of international values. Extension of the word “international”
193. Examination of Cases Illustrative of the Idea of Capital
1632. Interchange of commodities between distance places determined by differences not in their absolute, but in the comparative, costs of production
20Chapter IV Fundamental Propositions Respecting Capital
1643. The direct benefits of commerce consist in increased Efficiency of the productive powers of the World
211. Industry is Limited by Capital
1654. — Not in a Vent for exports, nor in the gains of Merchants
222. Increase of Capital gives Increased Employment to Labor, Without Assignable Bounds
1665. Indirect benefits of Commerce, Economical and Moral; still greater than the Direct
233. Capital is the result of Saving, and all Capital is Consumed
167Chapter XIV Of International Values
244. Capital is kept up by Perpetual Reproduction, as shown by the Recovery of Countries from Devastation
1681. The values of imported commodities depend on the Terms of international interchange
255. Effects of Defraying Government Expenditure by Loans
1692. The values of foreign commodities depend, not upon Cost of Production, but upon Reciprocal Demand and Supply
266. Demand for Commodities is not Demand for Labor
1703. — As illustrated by trade in cloth and linen between England and Germany
27Chapter V On Circulating And Fixed Capital
1714. The conclusion states in the Equation of International Demand
281. Fixed and Circulating Capital
1725. The cost to a country of its imports depends not only on the ratio of exchange, but on the efficiency of its labor
292. Increase of Fixed Capital, when, at the Expense of Circulating, might be Detrimental to the Laborers
173Chapter XV Of Money Considered As An Imported Commodity
303. — This seldom, if ever, occurs
1741. Money imported on two modes; as a Commodity, and as a medium of Exchange
31Chapter VI Of Causes Affecting The Efficiency Of Production
1752. As a commodity, it obeys the same laws of Value as other imported Commodities
321. General Causes of Superior Productiveness
176Chapter XVI Of The Foreign Exchanges
332. Combination and Division of Labor Increase Productiveness
1771. Money passes from country to country as a Medium of Exchange, through the Exchanges
343. Advantages of Division of Labor
1782. Distinction between Variations in the Exchanges which are self-adjusting and those which can only be rectified through Prices
354. Production on a Large and Production on a Small Scale
179Chapter XVII Of The Distribution Of The Precious Metals Through The Commercial World
36Chapter VII Of The Law Of The Increase Of Labor
1801. The substitution of money for barter makes no difference in exports and imports, nor in the Law of international Values
371. The Law of the Increase of Production Depends on those of Three Elements — Labor. Capital, and Land
1812. The preceding Theorem further illustrated
382. The Law of Population
1823. The precious metals, as money, are of the same Value, and distribute themselves according to the same Law, with the precious metals as a Commodity
393. By what Checks the Increase of Population is Practically Limited
1834. International payments entering into the “financial account.”
40Chapter VIII Of The Law Of The Increase Of Capital
184Chapter XVIII Influence Of The Currency On The Exchanges And On Foreign Trade
411. Means for Saving in the Surplus above Necessaries
1851. Variations in the exchange, which originate in the Currency
422. Motive for Saving in the Surplus above Necessaries
1862. Effect of a sudden increase of a metallic Currency, or of the sudden creation of Bank-Notes or other substitutes for Money
433. Examples of Deficiency in the Strength of this Desire
1873. Effect of the increase of an inconvertible paper Currency. Real and nominal exchange
444. Examples of Excess of this Desire
188Chapter XIX Of The Rate Of Interest
45Chapter IX Of The Law Of The Increase Of Production From Land
1891. The Rate of Interest depends on the Demand and Supply of Loans
461. The Law of Production from the Soil, a Law of Diminishing Return in Proportion to the Increased Application of Labor and Capital
1902. Circumstances which Determine the Permanent Demand and Supply of Loans
472. Antagonist Principle to the Law of Diminishing Return; the Progress of Improvements in Production
1913. Circumstances which Determine the Fluctuations
483. — In Railways
1924. The Rate of Interest not really Connected with the value of Money, but often confounded with it
494. — In Manufactures
1935. The Rate of Interest determines the price of land and of Securities
505. Law Holds True of Mining
194Chapter XX Of The Competition Of Different Countries In The Same Market
51Chapter X Consequences Of The Foregoing Laws
1951. Causes which enable one Country to undersell another
521. Remedies for Weakness of the Principle of Accumulation
1962. High wages do not prevent one Country from underselling another
532. Even where the Desire to Accumulate is Strong, Population must be Kept within the Limits of Population from Land
1973. Low wages enable a Country to undersell another, when Peculiar to certain branches of Industry
543. Necessity of Restraining Population not superseded by Free Trade in Food
1984. — But not when common to All
554. — Nor by Emigration
1995. Low profits as affecting the carrying Trade
56Book II Distribution
200Chapter XXI Of Distribution, As Affected By Exchange
57Chapter I Of Property
2011. Exchange and money make no Difference in the law of Wages
581. Individual Property and its opponents
2022. In the law of Rent
592. The case for Communism against private property presented
2033. — Nor in the law of Profits
603. The Socialists who appeal to state-help
204Book IV Influence Of The Progress Of Society On Production And Distribution
614. Of various minor schemes, Communistic and Socialistic
205Chapter I Influence Of The Progress Of Industry And Population On Values And Prices
625. The Socialist objections to the present order of Society examined
2061. Tendency of the progress of society toward increased Command over the powers of Nature; increased Security, and increased Capacity of Co-Operation
636. Property in land different from property in Movables
2072. Tendency to a Decline of the Value and Cost of Production of all Commodities
64Chapter II Of Wages
2083. — except the products of Agriculture and Mining, which have a tendency to Rise
651. Of Competition and Custom
2094. — that tendency from time to time Counteracted by Improvements in Production
662. The Wages-fund, and the Objections to it Considered
2105. Effect of the Progress of Society in moderating fluctuations of Value
673. Examination of some popular Opinions respecting Wages
211Chapter II Influence Of The Progress Of Industry And Population On Rents, Profits, And Wages
684. Certain rare Circumstances excepted, High Wages imply Restraints on Population
2121. Characteristic features of industrial Progress
695. Due Restriction of Population the only Safeguard of a Laboring-Class
2132. First two cases, Population and Capital increasing, the arts of production stationary
70Chapter III Of Remedies For Low Wages
2143. The arts of production advancing, capital and population stationary
711. A Legal or Customary Minimum of Wages, with a Guarantee of Employment
2154. Theoretical results, if all three Elements progressive
722. — Would Require as a Condition Legal Measures for Repression of Population
2165. Practical Results
733. Allowances in Aid of Wages and the Standard of Living
2171. Different Theories as to the fall of Profits
744. Grounds for Expecting Improvement in Public Opinion on the Subject of Population
2182. What determines the minimum rate of Profit?
755. Twofold means of Elevating the Habits of the Laboring-People; by Education, and by Foreign and Home Colonization
2193. In old and opulent countries, profits habitually near to the minimum
76Chapter IV Of The Differences Of Wages In Different Employments
2204. — prevented from reaching it by commercial revulsions
771. Differences of Wages Arising from Different Degrees of Attractiveness in Different Employments
2215. — by improvements in Production
782. Differences arising from Natural Monopolies
2226. — by the importation of cheap Necessaries and Implements
793. Effect on Wages of the Competition of Persons having other Means of Support
2237. — by the emigration of Capital
804. Wages of Women, why Lower than those of Men
224Chapter IV Consequences Of The Tendency Of Profits To A Minimum, And The Stationary State
815. Differences of Wages Arising from Laws, Combinations, or Customs
2251. Abstraction of Capital not necessarily a national loss
82Chapter V Of Profits
2262. In opulent countries, the extension of machinery not detrimental but beneficial to Laborers
831. Profits include Interest and Risk; but, correctly speaking, do not include Wages of Superintendence
2273. Stationary state of wealth and population dreaded by some writers, but not in itself undesirable
842. The Minimum of Profits; what produces Variations in the Amount of Profits
2281. The possibility of improvement while Laborers remain merely receivers of Wages
853. General Tendency of Profits to an Equality
2292. — through small holdings, by which the landlord's gain is shared
864. The Cause of the Existence of any Profit; the Advances of Capitalists consist of Wages of Labor
2303. — through co-operation, by which the manager's wages are shared
875. The Rate of Profit depends on the Cost of Labor
2314. Distributive Co-operation
88Chapter VI Of Rent
2325. Productive Co-Operation
891. Rent the Effect of a Natural Monopoly
2336. Industrial Partnership
902. No Land can pay Rent except Land of such Quality or Situation as exists in less Quantity than the Demand
2347. People's Banks
913. The Rent of Land is the Excess of its Return above the Return to the worst Land in Cultivation
235Book V On The Influence Of Government
924. — Or to the Capital employed in the least advantageous Circumstances
236Chapter I On The General Principles Of Taxation
935. Opposing Views of the Law of Rent
2371. Four fundamental rules of Taxation
946. Rent does not enter into the Cost of Production of Agricultural Produce
2382. Grounds of the principle of Equality of Taxation
95Book III Exchange
2393. Should the same percentage be levied on all amounts of Income?
96Chapter I Of Value
2404. Should the same percentage be levied on Perpetual and on Terminable Incomes?
971. Definitions of Value in Use, Exchange Value, and Price
2415. The increase of the rent of land from natural causes a fit subject of peculiar Taxation
982. Conditions of Value: Utility, Difficulty of Attainment, and Transferableness
2426. Taxes falling on Capital not necessarily objectionable
993. Commodities limited in Quantity by the law of Demand and Supply: General working of this Law
243Chapter II Of Direct Taxes
1004. Miscellaneous Cases falling under this Law
2441. Direct taxes either on income or expenditure
1015. Commodities which are Susceptible of Indefinite Multiplication without Increase of Cost. Law of their Value Cost of Production
2452. Taxes on rent
1026. The Value of these Commodities confirm, in the long run, to their Cost of Production through the operation of Demand and Supply
2463. — on profits
103Chapter II Ultimate Analysis Of Cost Of Production
2474. — on Wages
1041. Of Labor, the principal Element in Cost of Production
2485. — on Income
1052. Wages affect Values, only if different in different employments; “non-competing groups.”
2496. A House-Tax
1063. Profits an element in Cost of Production
250Chapter III Of Taxes On Commodities, Or Indirect Taxes
1074. Cost of Production properly represented by sacrifice, or cost, to the Laborer as well as to the Capitalist; the relation of this conception to the Cost of Labor
2511. A Tax on all commodities would fall on Profits
1085. When profits vary from Employment to Employment, or are spread over unequal lengths of Time, they affect Values accordingly
2522. Taxes on particular commodities fall on the consumer
1096. Occasional Elements in Cost of Production; taxes and ground-rent
2533. Peculiar effects of taxes on Necessaries
110Chapter III Of Rent, In Its Relation To Value
2544. — how modified by the tendency of profits to a minimum
1111. Commodities which are susceptible of indefinite Multiplication, but not without increase of Cost. Law of their Value, Cost of Production in the most unfavorable existing circumstances
2555. Effects of discriminating Duties
1122. Such commodities, when Produced in circumstances more favorable, yield a Rent equal to the difference of Cost
2566. Effects produced on international Exchange by Duties on Exports and on Imports.
1133. Rent of Mines and Fisheries and ground-rent of Buildings, and cases of gain analogous to Rent
257Chapter IV Comparison Between Direct And Indirect Taxation
1144. Résumé of the laws of value of each of the three classes of commodities
2581. Arguments for and against direct Taxation
115Chapter IV Of Money
2592. What forms of indirect taxation are most eligible?
1161. The three functions of Money — a Common Denominator of Value, a Medium of Exchange, a “Standard of Value”
2603. Practical rules for indirect taxation
1172. Gold and Silver, why fitted for those purposes
2614. Taxation systems of the United States and other Countries
1183. Money a mere contrivance for facilitating exchanges, which does not affect the laws of value
2625. A Résumé of the general principles of taxation
119Chapter V Of The Value Of Money, As Dependent On Demand And Supply
263Chapter V Of A National Debt
1201. Value of Money, an ambiguous expression
2641. Is it desirable to defray extraordinary public expenses by loans?
1212. The Value of Money depends on its quantity
2652. Not desirable to redeem a national Debt by a general Contribution
1223. — Together with the Rapidity of Circulation
2663. In what cases desirable to maintain a surplus revenue for the redemption of Debt
1234. Explanations and Limitations of this Principle
2671. The doctrine of Protection to Native Industry
124Chapter VI Of The Value Of Money, As Dependent On Cost Of Production
2682. — had its origin in the Mercantile System
1251. The value of Money, in a state of Freedom, conforms to the value of the Bullion contained in it
2693. — supported by pleas of national subsistence and national defense
1262. — Which is determined by the cost of production
2704. — on the ground of encouraging young industries; colonial policy
1273. This law, how related to the principle laid down in the preceding chapter
2715. — on the ground of high wages
128Chapter VII Of A Double Standard And Subsidiary Coins
2726. — on the ground of creating a diversity of industries
1291. Objections to a Double Standard
2737. — on the ground that it lowers prices
1302. The use of the two metals as money, and the management of Subsidiary Coins
274Preface
1313. The experience of the United States with a double standard from 1792 to 1883
275Of the Laws of Interchange Between Nations; and the Distribution of the Gains of Commerce Among the Countries of the Commercial World
132Chapter VIII Of Credit, As A Substitute For Money
276Of the Influence of Consumption on Production
1331. Credit not a creation but a Transfer of the means of Production
277On the Words Productive and Unproductive
1342. In what manner it assists Production
278On Profits, and Interest
1353. Function of Credit in economizing the use of Money
279On the Definition of Political Economy; and on the Method of Investigation Proper to It
1364. Bills of Exchange
280Socialism:
1375. Promissory Notes
281Preliminary Notice
1386. Deposits and Checks
282Introductory
139Chapter IX Influence Of Credit On Prices
283Socialist Objections to the Present Order of Society
1401. What acts on prices is Credit, in whatever shape given
284The Socialist Objections to the Present Order of Society Examined
1412. Credit a purchasing Power, similar to Money
285The Difficulties of Socialism
1423. Great extensions and contractions of Credit. Phenomena of a commercial crisis analyzed
286The Idea of Private Property Not Fixed but Variable
1434. Influence of the different forms of Credit on Prices
287The Slave Power
1445. On what the use of Credit depends
