1Preface
2204.2.1 Production Process
2Chapter 1. An Introduction to Biofuels
221Mixing of alcohol and catalyst
31.1 Biofuels
222Separation
4What is ethanol?
223Alcohol Removal
51.1.1 Types of Biofuels
224Glycerin Neutralization
61.1.2 Economic and Environmental Considerations
225Methyl Ester Wash
71.2 Need for Biofuels
226Product Quality
81.2.1 Biofuels for Energy Security
227Biodiesel Production Process Options: Batch Processing
91.2.2 Biofuels for the U.S. Economy
228High Free Fatty Acid Systems
101.2.3 Biofuels for the Environment
229Non-Catalyzed Systems – Biox Process
111.2.4 Biofuels and Global Climate Change
230Non-Catalyzed Systems – Supercritical Process
121.2.5 Biofuels and Air Quality
2314.3 Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
131.2.6 Biofuels and Water Quality
2324.3.1 Typical Oil Crops Useful for Biodiesel Production
141.2.7 Biofuels and Waste Disposal
233Rapeseed and Canola
151.2.8 Biofuels In The Market
234Soybean
161.3 Feedstock for Biofuels
235Oil Palm
171.3.1 Sugar and Starch Crops
236Sunflower
181.3.2 Fiber and Grass Cellulosic Crops
237Peanut
191.3.3 Crop Residues, Manures, and Organic Wastes
238Flax
201.3.4 Biogas and Anaerobic Digestion
239Safflower
211.3.5 Wood Products
240Castor Seed
221.4 Various Advantages and Disadvantages of Biofuels
241Tung
231.4.1 Advantages of Biofuels
242Cotton
241 Efficient Fuel
243Jojoba
252 Cost-Benefit
244Jatropha
263 Durability of Vehicles’ Engine
245Avocado
274 Easy to Source
246Microalgae
285 Renewable
2474.3.2 Characteristics of Oils and Fats Used in Biodiesel Production
296 Reduce Greenhouse Gases
2484.3.3 Characteristics of Alcohols Used in Biodiesel Production
307 Economic Security
2494.3.4 Other Feedstocks
318 Reduce Dependence on Foreign Oil
2504.4 Methods of Oil Extraction
329. Lower Levels of Pollution
2514.4.1 Mechanical Extraction Method
331.4.2 Disadvantages of Biofuels
2524.4.2 Chemical (Solvent) Extraction Method
341. High Cost of Production
2534.4.3 Enzymatic Extraction Method
352. Monoculture
2544.5 Technologies Used in Biodiesel Production
363. Use of Fertilizers
2554.5.1 Pyrolysis Or Catalytic Cracking
374. Shortage of Food
2564.5.2 Transesterification (Alcoholysis)
385. Industrial Pollution
2574.5.3 Homogeneous Alkali-Catalyzed Transesterification
396. Water Use
2584.5.4 Homogeneous Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
407. Future Rise in Price
2594.5.5 Heterogeneous Acid And Base-Catalyzed Transesterification
419. Global Warming
2604.5.6 Enzymatic Transesterification
4210. Weather Problem
2614.5.7 Supercritical Alcohol Transesterification
431.4.3 The Advantages of Biofuels over Fossil Fuels
2624.6 Current Challenges and Future Prospects
441.4.4 Biofuels vs. Fossil Fuels
2634.6.1 Vegetable Oil As A Feedstock For Biodiesel
451.5 Uses of Biofuels in Transport
2644.6.2 Non-Food Crops
46Motor Vehicles
2654.6.3 Effects Of Moisture And Ffa
47Biodiesel
2664.6.4 Pyrolysis
48Ethanol
2674.6.5 Alcohol
49Butanol
2684.6.6 Supercritical Alcohol Process
50Aviation
2694.6.7 Biodiesel/Glycerol Separation And Fame Quality
51Heavy Industry
2704.6.8 Use Of Cosolvents
521.5.1 What Are The Economic And Policy Factors Influencing Biofuel Development?
2714.6.9 Nox Emissions
531.5.2 The Raw Material Accounts For The Largest Share Of Total Biofuel Costs.
2724.6.10 Economic Analysis
541.5.3 How Are Biofuel Markets And Production Evolving?
2734.7 Exercise
551.6 What are the environmental impacts of biofuel production?
274Chapter 5. Waste-Derived Fuel: Converting Waste to Energy
561.7 How will biofuel production affect food security and poverty?
2755.1 Refuse-derived Fuel: Concept and Definition
571.8 How could biofuel policies be improved?
2765.1.1 RDF Defined
581.9 Exercise
2775.1.2 What Types of Materials Are Processed?
59Chapter 2. Hydrogen - A New Biofuel and its Production
2785.1.3 What Production Steps Are Involved in RDF?
602.1 Applications of Hydrogen in different Areas
2795.1.4 Is This A Landfill Alternative?
612.1.1 Long Established Uses – Hydrogen As A Feedstock (Material Based Uses)
2805.2 Production Process of Refuse-derived Fuel
622.1.2 Ammonia - Fertilizers
2815.2.1 The Process Of Converting Waste To Energy
632.1.3 Industrial Fields
2825.2.2 What Waste Products Can Be Used?
642.1.4 Fuel Production
283Use of RDF
652.1.5 Commencing Uses - Energy-Based Uses
284Presence of contaminants
662.2 Hydrogen in Transport
2855.2.3 Density of Refuse-derived Fuel
672.2.1 Aviation
2865.3 Benefits of Refuse-derived Fuels
682.2.2 Maritime Applications
2875.3.1 Energy Efficiency
692.2.3 Trains
2885.3.2 Homogeneity
702.2.4 Material Handling Vehicles
2895.3.3 Better Recycling
712.2.5 Buses
2905.3.4 Uniformity
722.2.6 Passenger Cars
2915.3.5 Transportation
732.2.7 Stationary Energy Applications
2925.3.6 Emissions
74Electricity Generation
2935.4 Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) systems
75Domestic Energy
2945.4.1 Processing Systems
762.3 Hydrogen Energy
2955.4.2 Wet RDF Processing
772.3.1 What is Hydrogen Energy?
2965.4.3 Dry Processing Systems
782.3.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells
2975.4.4 Precautions
792.4 Hydrogen Fuel Production
2985.5 Utilization of Refuse – Derived Fuel (RDF) As an Alternative Energy Resource
802.4.1 Thermal Processes
2995.6 Refuse-derived Fuel Market Forecast and Trend Analysis: Additional Insights
81Hydrogen Production: Natural Gas Reforming: How Does It Work?
3005.7 Exercise
82Steam-Methane Reforming
301Chapter 6. Natural Gas Flaring–Alternative Solutions
83Partial Oxidation
3026.1 Origin of Natural Gas
84Why is this pathway being considered?
3036.1.1 The Biological Stage
85Hydrogen Production: Coal Gasification
3046.1.2 The Thermal Stage
86How does it work?
3056.2 What is Gas Flaring – Why is it Done & Viable Alternatives?
87Why is this pathway being considered?
3066.2.1 What is Gas Flaring?: Chemical Composition of Flare Gas
88Research focuses on overcoming challenges
3076.2.2 Why Flare Gas?
89Hydrogen Production: Biomass Gasification
3086.2.3 How Is Gas Flaring Regulated?
90What is Biomass?
3096.2.4 Flare Gas Power Generation & Other Alternatives
91How Does Biomass Gasification Work?
3106.3 Feedstock for Petrochemical Plants
92Why is this pathway being considered?
3116.3.1 Liquefied Natural Gas
93Biomass is an abundant domestic resource
3126.3.2 Compressed Natural Gas
94Biomass “recycles” carbon dioxide
3136.3.3 Flare Stack Configuration
95Research focuses on overcoming challenges
3146.4.1 Improvements in Gas Pipelines
96Hydrogen Production: Biomass-Derived Liquid Reforming
3156.4.2 Natural Gas as a Premium Fuel
97How does it work?
3166.5 Effects of Natural Gas Flaring
98Why is this pathway being considered?
317Climate Change
99Biomass “recycles” carbon dioxide
318Acid Rain
100Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges
319Effects on Agriculture
1012.4.2 Electrolytic Hydrogen Production
320Pollution
102How does it Work?
321Health Implications
103Alkaline Electrolyzers
3226.6 Alternative Solutions to Gas Flaring
104Solid Oxide Electrolyzers
3236.6.2 Source of Energy and Feedstock for Petrochemical Plants
105Why is this pathway being considered?
3246.6.3 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
1062.4.3 Solar-Driven Processes
3256.6.4 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
107Hydrogen Production: Photobiological
3266.7 Composition and Properties of Natural Gas
108How does it work?
3276.7.1 Hydrocarbon Content
109Why is this pathway being considered?
3286.7.2 Nonhydrocarbon Content
110Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges
3296.7.3 Chemical Composition of Natural Gas
111Hydrogen Production: Thermochemical Water Splitting
330Sulfur:
112How does it work?
331Water vapor:
113Why is this pathway being considered?
3326.7.4 Typical Combustion Properties Of Natural Gas
114Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges
3336.7.5 Characteristics of Natural Gas
115Hydrogen Production: Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting
3346.8 Natural Gas Benefits and Considerations
116How does it Work?
3356.8.1 Energy Security
117Why is this pathway being considered?
3366.8.2 Vehicle Performance
118Research Focuses on Overcoming Challenges
3376.8.3 Lower Emissions
1192.4.4 Biological Processes
3386.8.4 Infrastructure and Vehicle Availability
120Hydrogen Production: Microbial Biomass Conversion
3396.9 Processing and Transport of Natural Gas
121How does it work?
3406.9.1 Measurement Systems
122Why is this pathway being considered?
3416.9.2 Field Processing
123Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges
3426.9.3 Dehydration
124Hydrogen Production: Photobiological
3436.9.5 Physical and Chemical Properties of Natural Gas
125How does it work?
3446.10 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as Alternative Fuel
126Why is this pathway being considered?
3456.10.1 What Is Natural Gas and CNG?
127Research Focuses On Overcoming Challenges
3466.10.2 Benefits of CNG
1282.5 Production of Bio-hydrogen
3476.10.3 Drawbacks of CNG
1292.5.1 By Photosynthetic Bacteria
3486.10.4 Natural Gas in Transportation: Gas Hydrate
1302.5.2 By Fermentation
3496.10.5 CNG and LNG as Alternative Transportation Fuels
1312.5.3 By Legume Crops
350Compressed Natural Gas: CNG.
1322.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
351Liquefied Natural Gas
1332.6.1 Advantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
3526.11 Exercise
1341. It is readily available
353Chapter 7. Vegetable Oil as an Alternative Fuel
1352. It does not produce harmful emissions
3547.1 Vegetable Oils: An overview
1363. It is environmentally friendly
3557.1.1 Structure of Vegetable Oils
1374. It can be used as fuel in rockets
3567.1.2 Saturated and Unsaturated Fats and Oils
1385. It is fuel-efficient
3577.1.3 Emulsifiers: Emulsifiers- Higher tier
1396. It is renewable
3587.1.4 Bromine Water Test
1402.6.2 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
3597.1.5 Hydrogenation- Higher tier
1411. It is expensive
3607.2 Vegetable Oil: Nutritional and Industrial Perspective
1422. It is difficult to store
3617.2.1 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids and Triacylglycerols
1433. It is not easy to replace the existing infrastructure.
3627.2.2 Beneficial Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids
1444. It is highly flammable
3637.2.3 Fatty Acids of Industrial Importance
1455. Fossil fuels are often used to produce it.
3647.3 Biodiesel: an Alternative fuel Produced from Vegetable Oils
1462.6.3 Capabilities of Hydrogen Fuel Cells
3657.4 How to Make Biodiesel From Vegetable Oil
1472.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy
366Materials for Making Biodiesel
1482.7.1 Advantages of Hydrogen Energy
367How to Make Biodiesel
1491. It is a Renewable Energy Source and Bountiful in Supply
368Using Biodiesel
1502. Numerous Sources to Produce Hydrogen Locally
369Biodiesel Stability and Shelf Life
1513. It is practically a Clean Energy Source
3707.4.1 Background Of Biodiesel
1524. Hydrogen Energy is Non-toxic
3717.4.2 Vegetable Oils As Diesel Fuels
1535. The Use of Hydrogen Greatly Reduces Pollution
3727.4.3 Chemical Compositions Of Vegetable Oils
1546. It is Far More Efficient than Other Sources of energy
3737.5 Properties of Vegetable oils as fuel: 7.5.1 Fuel Properties Of Biodiesel
1557. Used For Powering Space Ships
3747.6 Process of Biodiesel Production
1568. A Sustainable Production System
3757.6.1 Simple Transesterification Reaction
1572.7.2 Disadvantages of Hydrogen Energy
3767.6.2 Chemistry Of Transesterification Reaction
1581. Hydrogen Energy is Expensive
3777.7 Most important variables that influence the transesterification reaction
1592. Storage Complications
3787.7.1 Reaction Temperature
1603. It is Not the Safest Source of Energy
3797.7.2 Ratio Of Alcohol To Oil
1614. Tricky to Move Around
3807.7.3 Catalysts
1625. It is Dependent on Fossil fuels
3817.7.4 Mixing Intensity
1636. Hydrogen Energy Cannot Sustain the Population
3827.7.5 Purity Of Reactants
1642.8 Exercise
3837.8 Environmental Considerations
165Chapter 3. Bioalcohols as Alternative Fuel
3847.9 Economic feasibility
1663.1 Alcohol as a Fuel
3857.10 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil and Process Influencing Parameters
1673.1.1 Why Alcohol Used As An Alternative Fuel
3867.10.1 Basic Reaction Mechanism Involved in the Production of Biodiesel
1683.1.2 Fuel Economy and Octane
387Transesterification
1693.2 Biological Production versus Refining
388Side Reaction 1 (Saponification Reaction)
1703.2.1 Methanol
389Side Reaction 2 (Hydrolysis Reaction)
171Methane
390Esterification
172Methanol
3917.10.2 Factors Affecting the Production of Biodiesel from Waste Cooking Oil
1733.2.2 Ethanol
392Water Content
174Ethane
393Free Fatty Acid
175Ethanol
394Type of Alcohol
1763.2.3 Propanol
395Alcohol to Oil Ratio
1773.2.4 Butanol
396Catalyst Type
178Butane
397Catalyst Concentration
179n-Butanol
398Stirrer Speed
1803.2.5 Understanding Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Fuels
399Temperature
1813.2.6 Long Chain Alcohols
400Reaction Time
1823.3 Alcoholic Fuels: Economic, environmental issues and sustainable development
401pH
1833.3.1 Economic Aspects
4027.10.3 Process Description
1843.3.2 Environmental Issues
403Process I
1853.3.3 Sustainable Development
404Process II
1863.4 Properties of Alcohol Fuels
4057.11 Vegetable Oil as Alternative Fuel for Internal Combustion Engine
1873.5 Feedstock for Alcohol Fuels
4067.11.1 Internal Combustion Engine Basics
1883.5.1 First Generation: Grain Feedstock
4077.11.2 How Does An Internal Combustion Engine Work?
1893.5.2 Second Generation: Lignocellulosic Biomass
4087.11.3 Improving Combustion Engines
1903.5.3 Third generation: Algae Species
4097.11.4 Challenges and Difficulties
1913.5.4 Current Biofuel Yields From Various Biomass
4107.11.5 Technical Difficulties
1923.6 Manufacturing processes
4117.11.6 Remedies
1933.6.1 Ethanol Production
412Modification of Fuel
1943.6.2 Pretreatment
413Pyrolysis:
1953.6.3 Saccharification (hydrolysis)
414Micro-emulsification:
1963.6.4 Fermentation
415Dilution:
1973.6.5 Comparison Between SSF and SHF Processes
416Trans-Esterification:
1983.7 Use of Alcohol Fuels
4177.12 Exercise
1993.7.1 Fuel for Automobiles
418Glossary
2003.7.2 Fuel Cells
419References
2013.7.3 Jet Fuel
420Index
2023.7.4 Ways For Wider Utilization
421A
2033.7.5 Securing Energy Security
422B
2043.7.6 Distributed Energy Applications
423C
2053.8 Alcohol as alternative fuels in spark ignition engine: Advantages and Disadvantages
424D
2063.8.1 Conversion From Diesel To Spark Ignition
425E
2073.8.2 The Advantages And Disadvantages Of Ethanol Fuel
426F
208Better for the Environment
427G
209Creates Domestic Jobs
428H
210Different Environmental Impact
429I
211Need for Land
430J
212Implementation
431L
2133.9 Alcohol Fuels: Current Trends and Future Prospects
432M
2143.9.1 Current Trends
433N
2153.9.2 Future Prospects
434P
2163.10 Exercise
435R
217Chapter 4. Biodiesel Production: Methods and Technologies
436S
2184.1 Meaning and Definition of Biodiesel: 4.1.1 Definition
437T
2194.2 Biodiesel Production from Oils and Fats
